A Need for Cohesive Counter-Narcotics Policy
[42] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2009 World Drug Report 33 (United Nations Publications 2009) (“The highest levels of use (in terms of the proportion of the population aged 15-64 years) are
found along the main drug trafficking routes close to Afghanistan.”)
[43] See, The Senlis Council, Impact Assessment of Crop Eradication in Afghanistan and Lessons Learned from Latin America and South East Asia 9-38 (MF Publishing Ltd 2006)
[44] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], All Afghan Opium Surveys (United Nations Publications)
[45] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2010 Afghan Opium Survey, 2, Figure 1 (United Nations Publications 2010)
[46] European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe Annual Report 2010 6, Figure 1 (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union 2010)
[47] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2010 Afghan Opium Survey, 2 (United Nations Publications 2010)
[48] Id. at 2 (“Total opium production in 2010 was estimated at 3,600 metric tons (mt), a 48% decrease from 2009. The sharp decline was due to the spread of a disease that affected opium fields in the major growing provinces, particularly Hilmand and Kandahar. The disease started to appear in the fields after flowering in spring. This was too late to plant another crop, therefore the disease did not change the area under opium cultivation.” “The major effect of the disease was visible in the yield which dropped to 29.2 kg/ha, a 48% reduction from 2009.”)
[49] Id. at 22 (“In 2010, the average farm-gate price of dry opium at harvest time (weighted by production) was US$ 169/kg, a 164% increase from 2009.”)
[50] Id. at 22 (“The rapid increasing trend is a market response to the drastic reduction of the opium production which is due to the spreading of the opium disease in the major growing areas.”)
[51] David Mansfield and Adam Pain, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit [AREU], Counter-Narcotics in Afghanistan: The Failure of Success, 2 (Dec. 2008) (“The Taliban prohibition of 2001 led to an increase in the farm-gate price of opium, not only encouraging the return to cultivation the following year but also attracting new entrants.”)
[52] U.N. Int’l Narcotics Control Board [INCB], 2009 Annual Report, 30, ¶145 (United Nations Publications 2009) (“In 2008, the Government of Afghanistan informed the Board that there was no legitimate use for acetic anhydride in Afghanistan and requested all producing and trading countries not to authorize any exports of acetic anhydride to that country.”)
[53] See U.N. Int’l Narcotics Control Board [INCB], 2009 Annual Report, 30, ¶145 (United Nations Publications 2009); See Also, United Nations 1988 Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, Dec. 20, 1988.
[54] See, 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs as Amended by its 1972 Protocol, Mar. 25, 1972; See Also, United Nations 1988 Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, Dec. 20, 1988.
[55] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], Strategic Programme Framework for Afghanistan 2006-2010, 5 (United Nations 2006)
[56] See, 21 C.F.R. Part 1312 (Also known as the 80/20 rule. Australia was not mentioned because it is not likely that Australia is diverting its precursor chemicals to Afghanistan.)
[57] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], Strategic Programme Framework for Afghanistan 2006-2010, 30 (United Nations 2006)
[58] U.N. Int’l Narcotics Control Board [INCB], 2009 Annual Report, 30, ¶145 (United Nations Publications 2009)
[59] See, U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2010 Afghan Opium Survey (United Nations Publications 2010)
[60] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2010 World Drug Report 53 (United Nations Publications 2010) (“The Balkan route to West and Central Europe runs from Afghanistan via the Islamic Republic of Iran, Turkey and south-east European countries. This route and its various branches form the artery that carries high purity Afghan heroin into every important market in Europe. UNODC estimates that 37% of all Afghan heroin or 140 mt is annually trafficked into the Islamic Republic of Iran, from Afghanistan and Pakistan, towards the European market.”)
[61] Id. at 48 (“Unlike other major routes out of Afghanistan which have existed for decades, the Northern route through Central Asia and into the Russian Federation is a relatively recent phenomenon, only taking shape in the mid-1990s.” Estimated 25% of Afghan heroin or 95 mt, is annually trafficked through the Central Asian Republics.)
[62] Id. at 56 (“Considerable quantities of heroin are trafficked to Europe by sea and air, but the Balkan route resembles the Northern route in that the bulk of the flow proceeds by land.”)
[63] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], Addiction, Crime, and Insurgency: The Transnational Threat of Afghan Opium, 11 (United Nations Publications 2009)
[64] Id. at 71 (“The manufacturing of acetic anhydride was discontinued in Pakistan in 1995, but the country borders two major chemical producers, China and India. Based on seizure data, Pkaistan appears to be a major source of precursors entering Afghanistan.”)
[65] Id. at 48 (“[T]here are approximately 547,000 heroin and 145,000 opium users in Pakistan.”),
[66] Id. at 38 (The UK alone “estimate[s] that 25 pe cent of the heroin found on their market is shipped directly from Pakistan to the UK (by air or sea).”)
[67] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2010 World Drug Report 60 (United Nations Publications 2010)
[68] Id. at 60 (“More Afghan opiates pass through Pakistan than any other country bordering Afghanistan.”)
[69] Id. at 53-54 (“UNODC estimates that 37% of all Afghan heroin or 140 mt is annually trafficked into the Islamic Republic of Iran, from Afghanistan.” “Most of the heroin, around 30% (105-110 mt) of Afghanistan’s total production, continues to move west/south-west into the Islamic Republic of Iran towards Turkey and further to Europe.”)
[70] Caucasus countries are Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.
[71] Id. at 54 (“The so-called ‘northern Balkan route’ is a relatively recent variant on the Balkan route which transits the Caucasus rather than Turkey. Every year, approximately 9 mt of heroin are estimated to be trafficked from the Islamic Republic of Iran along this route. Joining this flow is a smaller volume of about 2 mt from Central Asia (not shown on map. In all, 11 mt of heroin are estimated to enter the Caucasus. Some 4 mt are either consumed or seized.”)
[72] Id. at 38 (“Seizure statistics indicate that the vast majority (98 per cent) of the heroin seized in Turkey comes from the Islamic Republic of Iran.”)
[73] Id. at 38 See Table 12
[74] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2010 World Drug Report (United Nations Publications 2010)
[75] U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], Addiction, Crime, and Insurgency: The Transnational Threat of Afghan Opium, 38 (United Nations Publications 2009) (“According to seizure information from UNODC and WCO for the years 2000-2008, 84 per cent of the heroin seized in Europe-(85-90) tons – was shipped from South-Eastern European (Balkan) countries.”)
